Examine the role of the witches in Macbeth Essay Example for Free

Examine the role of the witches in Macbeth Essay King James I succeeded Queen Elizabeth I on the throne of England in 1603. He was a member of the Stuart dynasty and was already the King of Scotland. This meant he united the two kingdoms, ending incessant warring between the two nations. James hoped to end the period of religious turmoil that had engulfed England for the previous century. The people in 17th Century England were very superstitious and witchcraft was the object of fevered fascination. In 1604 a law was passed that said anyone convicted of witchcraft should be executed. King James I was as fascinated by witches as his subjects, and in 1590 he personally interrogated a group of witches who had plotted to kill him. Misogyny and a strong belief that morality was being upheld fuelled societys hatred of witches. World Order was an important factor of seventeenth century life. World Order was a system in which God was at the top of the chain, followed by the King or Queen, then humans, birds, animals and fish. They believed that the King had been directly chosen by God and therefore did not have to answer to parliament. The human section of the Order was split into subdivisions of classes. It was believed that each person was born into their social status and ambition to rise above their position was considered unacceptable and was punishable by political means or by fate. The audience would immediately realise that once Macbeth had murdered the King, he would have to die, as he had disturbed Gods natural order. The first scene of Macbeth prepares the audience for the entrance of the witches with the use of pathetic fallacy. This is used to dramatic effect, with thunder, lightning and rain applied to create a feeling of chaos. The scene being set in a desolate place reinforces this idea, with the setting making it seem like the events that will unfold will be of an ominous nature. The words the witches use support the idea of chaos and disturbance. The word hurly-burly is used to show the turmoil at the time, with the area being ravaged by battle. Another phrase used to show disturbance is fair is foul and foul is fair. This phrase makes the audience wonder how anything fair can possibly be foul, thus creating confusion. There are many indicators that the three weird sisters are witches. These include the use of the number three, the familiars and the language of the sisters. The number three is a number often believed to be magical, and throughout the play Shakespeare frequently uses this number throughout the play. All three of the sisters have familiars, demons who take the form of creatures to aid witches with their evil craft. This is shown when the witches say I come Graymalkin, Paddock calls and Anon. Some of the sisters say things that can be interpreted as being related to witchcraft, including that will be ere the set of sun. This relates to witchcraft, as traditionally it was believed that witches performed magic at sunset. In Act I Scene 1, the Captain tells the story of Macbeth being a brave and noble man who is valiant and trustworthy. He gives an account of a battle that has just taken place and tells the king of Macbeths role in it. As the man telling the story holds the rank of Captain, trust is established between him and the audience. The use of words such as carved, unseamed and steel have connotations of murder and butchery, showing Macbeths bloodthirstiness in battle. The Captain also uses the phrase or memorise another Golgotha. This compares Macbeths fighting as being as bloody and savage as the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. This is a huge comparison, as Christ is a holy figure. I think that this shows Macbeth fights with such passion it could be almost a religion. A semantic field of warfare and battle supports this scene, with lexis including choke; rebel; galloglasses; smoked; over-charged; bloody; execution; carved; battlements; cannons and wounds. I think the words choke and over-charged are strong words, as they both show the zeal and ferocity Macbeth fought with. There is a large contrast between the way the witches and the Captain portray Macbeth. This creates an ambivalent presentation of Macbeth, allowing the audience to interpret Macbeths character in different ways. As a result of this, Macbeths entrance to the play is delayed until the third scene to allow the witches and the Captain to speak. The contradictory ideas about Macbeth that are spoken create tension, as the audience waits to see the true nature of Macbeth. A witch speaks before Macbeths arrival in Act I Scene 3, the line A drum, a drum, Macbeth doth come. This line has a strong aural quality, and the rhyming of drum and come creates a sound like a heartbeat, or a drum signifying war. This creates uncertainty in the audiences mind, and prepares them for an ominous scene. Throughout the first scene of the play the witches are presented to the audience as puzzling creatures, possibly closer akin to Satan than humans. Their characters seem uncertain and their strange speech patterns are an enigma. They speak many contradictions including when the battles lost and won and fair is foul and foul is fair. These contradictions could possibly be affiliated to world order, and the 17th Century audience may interpret the witches speech as a disturbance of that. The second appearance of the witches gives an insight into the power of the witches. The first witch tells the others about a woman who insulted her and how she would take her revenge upon the womans husband. The womans husband was the captain of a ship and the witch says in a sieve Ill thither sail and Ill do, Ill do, and Ill do. One of the skills witches were credited with was the ability to sail in sieves and the use of this and the way in which Ill do is repeated three times, suggests some form of incantation will be used upon the sailor. The other witches offer to give a wind, allowing her to create a storm at the ships location. This shows that while the witches cannot directly control people, they do have control over the environment and they can use this to change the circumstances of people. What the witches plan to do with the captain is very alike what happens to Macbeth in the future. Sleep shall neither night nor day is similar to Macbeth after murdering Duncan, where he is plagued by nightmares and cannot sleep. This links Macbeth to the witches and shows his evil nature. When Macbeth meets the witches he is greeted with the witches saying hail to thee, Thane of Glamis, hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor and All hail Macbeth, that shalt be king hereafter. The three lines indicate the three states of being: past, present and future. Glamis shows the past tense, as Macbeth has been Thane of Glamis for a significant amount of time and he is aware of his position. Cawdor represents the present, as unbeknown to him, Duncan has just stripped the previous Thane of Cawdor of his title, and will issue it to Macbeth. The final greeting is a prophecy, and it tells Macbeth that he will become King of England. The close repetition of the phrase gives the parallelism a strong rhythmic value, creating a sound that is similar to a spell or incantation. This reminds the audience that the prophecy has come from the mouths of evil, and so cannot be pure. After hearing these prophecies Macbeth responds by physically jolting. Banquo saying why do you start and seem to fear shows this. There are three possible explanations for him jumping. Either Macbeth jumps in fear of the witches, jumps because he knows Duncan must die, or because the idea of murdering the king was already in his mind. In my opinion the reason Shakespeare put Banquos line into the play was to make the audience wonder if Macbeth had already thought about killing Duncan and claiming the throne. After the prophecies are given, Macbeth also orders the witches to tell him more. Imperative verbs are used to show his commands. These include stay and speak. These show Macbeth wants to know more and show his military commanding background. It appears that he is used to having his orders carried out. Ross a herald of King Duncan then gives the news that Macbeth is Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth responds by saying The Thane of Cawdor lives. Why do you dress me in borrowed robes? This is part of a set of clothes images throughout the play. This series of images supports the theme of the play, assuming a false identity and assuming someone else place. Clothing is used because Macbeth appears to be hiding his true nature behind the valiant robes of kingship. The set of images is effective because clothing can suggest concealment and disguise. After being assured of his position as Thane of Cawdor, Macbeth edges into a soliloquy. This is a dramatic technique and shows a characters innermost thoughts. The phrase if ill, why hath it given me earnest of success? is spoken by Macbeth, and shows how he cannot understand how the prophecies can possibly be evil when they have given him success. This shows he fully believes the witches and so means he will be likely to commit the murder of the king. A series of images from the stage is in this soliloquy with words such as prologues; act and imperial theme. Another one of William Shakespeares plays, As You Like It has a similar theme and a character in it says All the worlds a stage and the characters merely players. They have their exits and their entrances. This displays world order, and it can be seen that each person has a part to play and must not step out of his or her role. By killing Duncan, Macbeth will step out of his role and cause chaos. I also think this can be related to Macbeth, as the witches have carefully orchestrated his life and have great control over his destiny. This is very much alike to the lines or acts in a play, while his exit will be his fate. At the end of the soliloquy there is also another clothes image, when Banquo says look how our partners rapt. This is a pun, as Macbeth is spellbound but also metaphorically wrapped in the clothes of another man the king. The language of Macbeths letter to his wife shows that he has chosen to believe the witches prophesies. The letter opens with the phrase They met me in the day of success. This shows that all the experiences he had that day were successful, the battle and the encounter with the witches. The phrase they have more in them than mortal knowledge shows that he fully believes they have magical powers, and that he trusts they will be beneficial to his cause. He says he burned in desire to question them further, showing the audience his desperate need to know more information. The phrase fate and metaphysical aid doth seem is used by Lady Macbeth in her response to Macbeths letter. This phrase is significant as it shows her readiness to ally herself with evil and the magic of the witches. It also shows that she believes fate has placed the supernatural witches in their paths and they would be wrong to side against them. Lady Macbeth has a large soliloquy in Act I Scene 5. A soliloquy is where an actor turns to the audience and speaks directly to them, as if the character were daydreaming. The actor speaks the truth as their character perceives it to be to the audience. This technique is used to great dramatic effect by Shakespeare. In her soliloquy her deadly intent is revealed. The words I feel now the future in the instant spoken by Lady Macbeth are very significant. They show that she believes their future will be decided by their actions regarding the king. I think that at this point she knows what must be done for her husband to become King. Lady Macbeth graphically indicates her decision to bring about the death of King Duncan by saying O never shall sun that morrow see. This shows that when the king goes to sleep, he shall never see daylight again: his fate is inevitable. Sun is used as an image because the sun is a symbolic representation of monarchy. Also, in world order, kings where the highest placed creature, just as the sun is the most important thing in the sky. When Macbeth rejoins his wife, they speak of their plans to kill Duncan. She advises Macbeth to look like thinnocent flower, but be the serpent undert. This means she wants Macbeth to look honest and friendly on the outside, yet on the inside, be as venomous as a vicious serpent and murder the king. The audience at the time would make a link between this and the Gunpowder Plot. The medals awarded during the plot to commemorate James escape featured a flower intertwined with a snake. As this had only recently happened in Shakespeares time, the audience would immediately recognise the connection. In Act I Scene 6, Duncan visits Macbeths castle. At the scenes start, Duncan remarks upon how agreeable the castle is, with phrases such as hath a pleasant seat and recommends itself displaying his thoughts. This is ironic, as the castle looks like thinnocent flower but is really the serpent undert, as the king finds out. Lady Macbeth uses many euphemisms for murder in her soliloquy. Examples of these are provided for, great business and dispatch. The use of euphemism shows that she does not want to explicitly state her murderous intentions clearly. A reason for this could be that she is afraid of being overheard and accused of treason. However, I think the main reason is that if she clearly said murder the situation would seem more real and she would see the extent of the crime. I believe she is still unsure herself about the gravity of the situation. The euphemisms all have double meanings, and these could be seen as a type of test for Macbeth to see how he would react to the suggestions. Provided for could mean to be fed or to be killed. The great business could be seen to be the feasting or the murder that would mean greatness for the Macbeths. The word dispatch could mean welcoming the guest, or the murder. In Act I Scene 7 Macbeth has a soliloquy that shows his indecisive state of mind. There are many words which show doubt, including if and but, displaying how he is considering his actions and is not fully committed to the cause. This is supported by the language of thought, including but how, if and could. Macbeth shows he is aware of just how immoral the murder would be, with the lines hes here in double trust: first, as I am his kinsman and his subject then as his host. Here Macbeth lists his reasons why he should not kill Duncan, as he is his subject, his host and is even related to him. Through the soliloquy Macbeth shows that he understands there will be consequences for murder. Might be the be-all and the end-all here is a line spoken that shows the murder will not be the end of his troubled time; it will be the beginning of an even more distressing state. He recognises that consequences will occur to whoever carries out the action and shows it through the phrase bloody instructions which being taught, return to plague thinventor. Macbeth also says to himself that Duncan has been a good king and that his virtues will plead like angels. At the end of the soliloquy an extended metaphor of horsemanship develops. This includes words such as spur; prick; vaulting; oerleaps and falls. This is prefigures Macbeths life, as his vaulting ambition is all he has to spur him on, and it will eventually reach too high (the position of king) and oerleap. He will then fall and will receive the consequences of his actions. The image of horsemanship was used to remind the audience of Macbeths strict militaristic background. Macbeths soliloquy shows a huge difference in character between himself and his wife. While his wife immediately resolves that they must kill the king, Macbeth thinks about the consequences. This shows Macbeth does have a conscience and I think this causes the audience to feel sympathetic to his plight. Macbeth has a second soliloquy in Act II Scene 1. Here his intensified fragile state of mind is shown to the audience. Macbeth sees an apparition of a floating dagger, shown through the phrase is this a dagger which I see before me. This shows that his mind is so focused upon the murder of Duncan, it is seeing weapons everywhere he turns. Phrases such as a dagger of the mind proceeding from the heat-oppressà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½d brain, show the mental strain Macbeth is under. A semantic field of the supernatural underpins this soliloquy, with words including: witchcraft; Hecate; murder; sentinel; wolf; stealthy; ghost and fear. I think that Hecate is a particularly powerful word to use as Hecate was traditionally thought to be the goddess of witchcraft. At the beginning of the soliloquy Macbeth is using euphemisms for murder, like the bloody business. However, towards the end of the soliloquy, the language has developed and now includes words like murder and horror. This shows that Macbeth has now fully made his decision and accepts what he must do. The soliloquy ends with a rhyming couplet, reminiscent of the witches. By using the language of the witches on Macbeth, Shakespeare has identified Macbeth closely with them. This creates the impression that the soliloquy ends with him making his own spell that will mean the death of Duncan. The two soliloquies depict the way in which the witches have effected Macbeth. They have given him advice and he has taken it in the way that he believed was correct. The witches have only influenced him, they have not directly told him what to do. I think Shakespeare has used these soliloquies to give the audience an insight into the mind of a murderer. As this was a 17th Century production, psychology and other studies into the mind had not been begun. This would mean the audience would be enthralled by what would have been revolutionary viewing. Act II Scene 4 takes place outside of Macbeths castle and is a conversation between Ross a thane and an old man. Though this scene takes place after the murder of Duncan, the two characters discussing the night do not yet know anything about his death. It is important that the man speaking is old, as this means he has lived for a long time among the feuding Scottish warlords. This creates an impression of knowledge, and that the old man would have seen many unusual things. Pathetic fallacy is used, with the phrase dark night strangles the travelling lamp signifying an eclipse. I think an eclipse has been used for the nights weather, as it is highly unusual and would have been considered to be supernatural. This would have given the night an eerie atmosphere. The old man begins the scene by saying this sore night hath trifled former knowings. This shows that while the man is very old, he cannot remember a night as strange as this. A bank of images relating to the stage is found, including act and stage. These relate to the previous stage images, found in Act I Scene 3. The images link to world order and the way in which everybody has a part to play that they cannot change. By murdering Duncan, Macbeth has stepped out of his role and his upset the balance of world order. A falcon towring in her pride of place was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. The falcon is top of the food chain, and this is metaphorical for a lesser animal (Macbeth) killing something that belongs at the top of world order (Duncan). The horses have turned cannibalistic and are eating each other: turned wild in nature, broke their stalls they eat each other. This shows just how disturbed the order of the world is, yet it is also metaphorical for Macbeth killing his own kind. The use of language such as entomb, strange and unnatural show the precarious state the world is now in, with Duncan dead. Act IV Scene 1 begins with the three witches casting a spell in preparation for their meeting with Macbeth. Pathetic fallacy is once again used, with thunder giving the audience the impression the spell will be destructive. The chant shows many of the prejudices of the time. The witches put many parts of creatures that were considered inferior to the majority into the cauldron. These inferior creatures are: frog; bat; dog; adder; blind-worm; lizard and howlet. All of the animals mentioned are creatures of the night, and so were considered very rudimentary forms of life. After more chanting, the witches begin to put in parts of other items associated with death. The mythical dragon, the predatory wolf, the evil witches mummy and the poisonous hemlock are all placed into the pot. This adds to the feeling of death and evil. Societys prejudices come to the forefront of the chant with body parts of non-Christians being added to the pot: liver of blaspheming Jew, nose of Turk and Tartars lips. As Jews, Turks and Tartars were not Christian, the audience would have feared them as they were foreign and their cultures were unknown to them. There is a semantic field of poison in the incantation, and the lexis included are: poisoned; entrails; toad; sweltered; venom; sleeping; boil and bubble. These were all added by Shakespeare to make the witches concoction appear to be very deadly. Towards the end of the spell, the finger of a birth-strangled babe, ditch delivered by a drab. A drab was a prostitute and the child would have been killed at birth, as an illegitimate child would bring shame upon the family. As it was strangled at birth, the child is unblessed and so would never enter Heaven. This is familiar magic and works through association. This could prefigure Macbeths murder of Macduffs children. The magic number three is also used, when the witches say thrice towards the start of the spell. The rhymes and rhythm of the words help to reinforce the idea of a deadly spell. The spell has a heavy aural quality, and this meant the audience could feel a part of the play. Rhyming couplets are used throughout the spell, helping to make it seem like a chant. An example of a rhyming couplet is Ditch delivered by a drab, make the gruel thick and slab. This phrase also has many labials in it, helping to create a sense of evil and decay. Shakespeare also employs onomatopoeia in Macbeth. This helps to reinforce the tension and make an aural sound of a spell. Examples of onomatopoeia are double, trouble and bubble. There is a language link between this and Act I Scene 2 where the captain describes Macbeth as having doubly redoubled strokes upon the foe. This helps to tie Macbeth to the witches. I think that Macbeth returns to the witches because he wants to know his future. He has been tortured by the spirit of Banquo whom he has had killed and he fears for his sanity. Macbeth goes to the witches to seek assurances that he will not be dethroned in the future. I think he is looking for a future, as his guilt seems to tell him he will not have a pleasant one. The fact that he comes to the witches for reassurance shows that he has chosen to fully believe them and he trusts them. By consulting them, he is trying to change his own fate. This could further upset the order of the world. Macbeth greets the witches in the following way: How now, you secret, black, and midnight hags! What ist you do? Black and secret connote concealment and this links to the clothes images that run throughout the play. The use of the phrase midnight hags shows that Macbeth understands the power of the witches and that they have just created a spell. Midnight is the witching hour, and this can be cross referenced to Act I Scene 1 where the witches say that will be ere the set of sun. A witch responds by saying a deed without a name. This is in keeping with the earlier euphemisms for murder. When Macbeth speaks to the witches he instantly commands them by saying I conjure you. This is a play on words, as the witches have the ability to conjure things and because he is commanding them. Imperative verbs are once again used, showing that he is used to having his orders carried out. Examples of imperatives are answer and speak. Macbeth is prepared to take the world to the edge of destruction to get the answers he seeks. Castles topple and pyramids do slope their heads to their foundations shows he does not care about the destruction he causes in his quest. He ends by saying even till destruction sicken. I believe this would be said with finality, showing how deeply he will pursue his aims. A semantic field of chaos underpins this whole section, with words like: winds; yeasty waves; confound; swallow; lodged; blown down; topple; slope; tumble and destruction. Semantics are used here to show just how much Macbeth has already disturbed world order by murdering Duncan. The witches create three apparitions that give Macbeth a prophecy each. The first apparition is of an armed head and it tells Macbeth:Beware Macduff, Beware the Thane of Fife. Macbeths immediate response is thou has harped my fear alright, meaning he has confirmed what he thought. Towards the end of the scene, he says he will act on his first impulse and do what his first instincts say: The very firstlings of my heart shall be, the firstlings of my hand. After hearing Macduff has fled Scotland, Macbeth turns into a blind rage and orders his men to give to thedge othsword his wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls that trace him in his line. The second apparition is of a bloody child and tells Macbeth: Laugh to scorn the power of men, for none of woman born shall harm Macbeth. This greatly pleases Macbeth and gives him more security. Although he is reassured, he still makes an oath that he will kill Macduff. I think he does this for extra reassurance in light of the first apparition. The bloody child prefigures the decision Macbeth will make to kill Macduffs children. The third apparition is of a child crowned, with a tree in his hand. The child tells Macbeth: Macbeth shall never vanquished be until Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane hill shall come against him. Macbeth responds by saying no one can make the trees move at their will. This shows that he dismisses the prophecy and does not take into consideration the possibilities of how this could occur. Macbeths confidence has improved greatly after hearing these prophecies and he confidently asks the third apparition shall Banquos issue ever reign in this kingdom? By asking the question, Macbeth shows he is still intrigued by the original prophecy of the witches which said Banquos descendants will be monarchs. The witches then tell him seek to know no more. This annoys Macbeth and he childishly says deny me this, and an eternal curse fall on you, showing his arrogance. After he does this, the witches summon another apparition, this time eight kings with Banquo following behind. Macbeth realises the answer to his question about Banquos heirs when he says: Now I see tis true, for the blood-boltered Banquo smiles upon me, and points at them for his. Macbeths reactions to all the prophecies show his precarious state of mind. Throughout Act IV Scene 1 he lapses into bravado, attempting to show he is confident when in actual fact he is very nervous and afraid. Two examples of bravado used are call em, let me see em and had I three ears, Id hear thee. Although he is nervous and fearful of his future, Macbeth still feels superior to the witches. This is shown through phrases such as tell me and filthy hags. Macbeth misses the significance of the third prophecy, where the obvious interpretation of the trees being camouflage is overlooked. This shows that he is no longer thinking like a soldier, and rather a desperate man. The apparition showing Banquos heirs is believed to have political significance. The eight king bears a glass (mirror) and it is thought that it would have been pointed at King James I, watched the play. As it was facing James, the audience would have seen the kings face while the line, some I see, that two-fold balls and treble sceptres carry was spoken. These represent the two orbs James I carried at his two coronations in Scotland and England, as well as the three kingdoms he now ruled: Scotland, England and Ireland. I think this was put into the play to try and support James. When he came to power, he promised better things for both Catholics and Protestants. However, he seemed not to fulfill these promises in the way that the people wanted and the Gunpowder Plot challenged his rule. I think that Shakespeare put this section in Macbeth to try and show James had a legitimate claim to the throne as he was descended from ancient royalty. In the scene, Macbeths assistant is called Seyton. This could possibly be pronounced Satan, adding to the impression of Macbeths growing evil. I think the use of an assistant called Seyton makes it sound as though Macbeth now has his own familiar, the Devil himself. Towards the end of the scene, the doctor tells Macbeth that Lady Macbeth is suffering from a mental ailment. Macbeths immediate response is to order the doctor to cure her of that. The next few lines of the play detail Macbeth asking if the doctor cannot cure a mind diseased. However, I believe the audience would see the question as Macbeth asking for help himself, as the anxiety and sorrow he describes is what he himself is suffering from. The question is reinforced by a semantic field of cleaning, with words such as: minister; pluck; raze; antidote and cleanse. I think this shows just how badly Macbeth wants his mental state to be cured. When the doctor says patients must cure themselves, he responds by angrily saying throw physic to the dogs. This shows his precarious mental state. Act V Scene 8 details the battle between Macbeth and Macduff outside Dunsinane Castle. The scene begins with Macbeth saying he wants to become the great soldier that he once was, and will not commit suicide. The line why should I play the Roman fool and fie on mine own sword? shows this. Macbeth tells Macduff that he has avoided him for the entirety of the battle, but his soul is too much charged with blood. This means he has seen so much death he no longer cares about who he faces. As he is facing Macduff, Macbeth boasts that no naturally born man can kill him. This makes Macduff reveal his own Caesarean birth. Hearing this, Macbeth almost physically collapses. The mental stress and the fake promise of glory from the witches suddenly leave Macbeth, and he is free to sadly muse about his shortcomings. And be these juggling fiends no more believed That palter with us in a double sense, That keep the word of promise to our ear And break it to our hope. This section shows how Macbeth now views the witches and their prophecies. The first line shows how he no longer believes the witches. The use of the phrase juggling fiends represents his view that the witches have been juggling with fate, emotion and peoples lives. That palter with us in a double sense means Macbeth now accepts that the witches prophecies could have been interpreted in different ways and he made the wrong choices. That keep the word of promise to our ear shows how they misled him by speaking of future greatness, but then break it to our hope. Despite realising that Macduff will kill him, Macbeth decides to die fighting, in an attempt to reclaim some of his lost honour. Another reason for his decision to die fighting is the fact that he cannot bear the thought of being subservient to Malcolm after being in a position of power all his life.

The Rule of Law Essay examples -- fair legal system

The rule of law is a difficult concept to grasp and proves elusive to substantive definition. However, the following work considers the attempts of various social and legal theorists to define the concept and pertinent authorities are considered. Attitudes and emphasis as to the exact shape, form and content of the rule of law differ quite widely depending on the socio-political perspective and views of respective commentators (Slapper and Kelly, 2009, p16), although there are common themes that are almost universally adopted. The conclusions to this work endeavour to consolidate thinking on the rule of law in order to address the question posed in the title, which is at first sight a deceptively simple one. The rule of law Modern legislation places the ‘rule of law’ firmly at the heart of the English legal system. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005, for example, states in section 1 that the Act does not adversely affect ‘the existing constitutional principle of the rule of law’. Moreover, the oath required to be taken by the Lord Chancellor, as specified in section 17(1) of the 2005 Act, pledges that the rule of law will be respected alongside defence of the independence of the judiciary. Unhelpfully perhaps, at least in the context of the question posed in the title to this work, the 2005 Act does not provide a definition of the concept of the rule of law. As Lord Bingham observed in a 2006 lecture, the draughtsmen of the 2005 Act seemingly acknowledged the difficulty of establishing an accurate, comprehensive and succinct definition appropriate for incorporation in the statute, and so left the job of definition to the judiciary in their subsequent interpretation and application of the Act (Bingham, 2006, Sixth Sir Dav... ...yranny begins.† (Locke, 1690). This Lockean stance emphasises the importance of the rule of law as a golden precept and inviolable principle that controls the way in which a State’s power is exercised over its citizens or subjects. BIBLIOGRAPHY Constitutional Reform Act 2005 Dicey A.V., An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, (1885) Locke, J., The Second Treatise of Civil Government, (1690) Hayek F.A., The Road to Serfdom, (1994) University of Chicago Press Lord Bingham of Cornhill, ‘The Rule of Law’, November 2006, Sixth Sir David Williams Lecture, Centre for Public Law, University of Cambridge Raz J., ‘The Rule of Law and its virtue’, (1977) 93 LQR 195 Slapper G. & Kelly D., The English Legal System (2009) Routledge Cavendish Thompson E.P. (Thompson D. (ed)), The Essential EP Thompson, (2001) The New Press

With specific focus on Anthem for Doomed Youth evaluate the methods the poet uses to bring across his convictions, feelings and ideas

â€Å"Who longs to charge and shoot, Do you my laddie.† This jingoistic wartime poem by Jessie Pope ignites Owen's anger at these false impressions of war. This is evident in such poems as Dulce et Decorum est, originally penned towards Pope, hence the initial title, To a Certain Poetess. Owen's â€Å"senses were charred† at the sight of the â€Å"suffering of the troops†, such accusations about the nature of warfare fuelling the malice of his work. Owen never openly retaliates, instead opting to include his resentment towards writers like Pope in his poems. Owen frequently conveys his convictions of lost youth in Anthem For Doomed Youth by referring to â€Å"the hands of boys†, evidently refusing to acknowledge the maturity of the men. Owen's numerous references to religious symbols heightens the effects of his poems. In Anthem, we hear the â€Å"demented choirs of wailing shells.† Angelic choirs are ironically reversed as Owen negates Christian ritual as being unfitting for those who die amid screaming shells. In Mental Cases, we also bear witness to Biblical images, asking if we are: â€Å"Sleeping, and walk hell But who these hellish?† Owen often compares war to Hell, comparing soldiers to creatures undergoing eternal torment, â€Å"Wherefore rock they, purgatorial shadows†. This adds to the created impression of those driven mad by war, as he asks if the â€Å"multitudinous murders† these men have committed has doomed them to Hell. Owen insists these soldiers are not to blame, for ‘we' dealt them this â€Å"tormented† fate. Anthem is a similar reversal, where Owen utilizes heavenly elements, â€Å"orisons†. Yet, these spiritual references are used negatively: the only true regret is the â€Å"holy glimmers of goodbyes† in the dying soldiers' eyes. The gloriousness of Heaven and God is ignored, extending the distressing impact of the poem on the reader, as similar devilish imagery is used in other poems, such as the gas victim's â€Å"devil sick of sun† face in Dulce. This imagery is so contorted it is unearthly, and seemingly impossible – just as the devil bec oming tired of sinning is impossible. Owen's verbal images are parallel to artwork of the time, in particular Otto Dix's Assault Under Gas, shown below. In this art piece, Dix mirrors the tortured, hellish scenes of Dulce, with the cries of â€Å"Gas!† almost audible. The visual imagery suggests the mental effects of the attacks on the soldiers, highlighted by the colour grey – as if life had been drained from them. Owen would have been aware of this, as he was treated at Craiglockhart Hospital for shellshock, amongst men whose â€Å"slumbers were morbid and terrifying.† In Futility, the image of the Sun is frequently used. It is often associated with life and its joys, however, Owen is very sarcastic in his reversal of the sun, first writing: â€Å"If anything might rouse him now The kind old sun will know.† Owen then goes on to criticise the Sun, labelling it as useless. He asks why we are created and given warm life, when war destroys everything of value: â€Å"O what made fatuous sunbeams toil To break earth's sleep at all?† Owen also adopts animal imagery to his poems to further the displayed messages. In Anthem, Owen's opening line contains the powerful simile comparing soldiers as those, â€Å"who die as cattle?† referring to the high numbers of dead soldiers, especially young soldiers, being cut down in their prime, just as cattle would. Owen suggests they were grown for a specific reason (to fight), and killed once they had met their purpose (being slaughtered on the battlefield). In Owen's first draft of Anthem, written, with guidance from Siegfried Sassoon, in Craiglockhart, he stressed the â€Å"cattle† reference as an emotional jeer at the overly ambitious generals who used the men as cannon fodder. The parallel to animals is used to great effect. In Dulce et Decorum est, Owen details the men who â€Å"had lost their boots, limped on, blood-shod.† â€Å"Boots† and â€Å"shod† remind us of the horses used in the war, who had iron-shod shoes – portraying men as if they were beasts of burden, slumbering forward with heavy loads on their back – the worry and terror of what would face them weighing the men down. We see the effects of such an affliction in Mental Cases, where the â€Å"jaws that slob their relish† disparage â€Å"us who dealt them war and madness† by â€Å"pawing†. Such quotes accentuate the dehumanisation of these men that once â€Å"sang their way†, signalling the end of their transition into â€Å"rocking† wrecks. Owen recreates the horrors of war through his gruesome graphic imagery, particularly in Dulce's â€Å"green sea†, where the â€Å"flound'ring† of the victim â€Å"smothers† his dreams. The realisation of such a sight is alarming to the reader. Even in Owen's time, such a description would shock the reader into picturing the â€Å"sick of sin hanging face†. Owen's passion displays the real effects of such a grim and â€Å"monstrous† war, trying desperately to erase the false screen created by such jingoistic writers as Pope. One of Owen's tendencies is to incorporate intense sounds to support the potent imagery: â€Å"We were caught in a tornado of shells† This extract, from one of Owen's letters, provides insight into his writing of Anthem: â€Å"The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells† Owen uses his â€Å"submerged memories of warfare† to great effect, frequently applying onomatopoeia to his poems – the â€Å"stuttering rifle's rapid rattle† in Anthem, and the â€Å"batter of guns† in Mental Cases. The powerful resonance of the weapons intensifies the empathy the reader has for the â€Å"sacrificed men†, as the hellish scene recreates the â€Å"rattling† in our own ears, as if we, the reader, were there. In Futility, a direct contrast is apparent, as the â€Å"whispering of fields at home† signifies the sharp difference between the frontline action, and the calmness of Blighty. This is a stark reminder from Owen that, whilst everything's fine and calm in Britain, there are â€Å"full-nerved† men dying in France. The continuation of Anthem's onomatopoeic clatters is mirrored most notably by Mental Cases' â€Å"batter of guns and shatter of flying muscles†. The rhyming extends Owen's vivid ideas by suggesting that, as well as fighting and seeing the misery of comrades falling, the sounds of the â€Å"multitudinous murders they once witnessed† replay constantly in their minds, reminding them of the torment they met. In Dulce, we can ‘hear' the â€Å"guttering choking† and â€Å"gargling† of the â€Å"hanging face†, as well as visualize the grotesque scene, subjecting the reader to view the true nature of war further. As well as applying haunting adjectives to his work, Owen utilizes pace to maintain his high level of passion. This is most evident in Dulce, where each verse is different in speed. The opening verse is drawn out -very slow – with long, elongated vowels and verbs completing the stanza, â€Å"lame†, â€Å"lost† and â€Å"coughing†. This mirrors the fatigue of the soldiers, who would be deprived of sleep and be very slow in their speech. As the poem progresses into the gas attack, a pacy, urgent tone is adopted, with the cries of â€Å"Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!† As Owen describes the gas victim's painful end, the solemnly spoken words are slower, reverting back to the lingering sounds of the first verse, â€Å"writhing† . In Anthem, the â€Å"passing bells† of the funeral suggests a slow, sombre tone, as is the case with funerals. However, with the â€Å"bugles calling† and the â€Å"wailing†, the mournful mood is lost, just like the youth of Britain. Owen often ends his poems with an accusatory conviction, a controversial one that projects his innermost feelings, chosen to express the untold truths about war, and how the patriotic campaigns to conscript men are disgraceful. In Anthem, Owen ends with: â€Å"Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds, And each slow dusk a drawing down of blinds† This is a direct contrast to the whole poem, where Owen suggests the â€Å"monstrous anger of the guns† accompanies them in death. Instead of his habitual ending of a â€Å"Lie†, Owen's ending is surprisingly peaceful, displaying a compassion for the dead previously unseen in his other poems. Mental Cases, Futility and Dulce, however, all oppose the somewhat ‘upbeat' ending. Dulce ends with â€Å"The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.† Owen flat out accuses the old saying, and the certain poetess, that to die for your country is not sweet and meet. Owen even goes as far as ironically rhyming â€Å"glory† and â€Å"mori†, as to satirically jeer at Jesse Pope, completely contradicting her. Owen asks if â€Å"my friend, you would not tell†¦the old Lie†, passionately addressing the reader, but also the frank direction at Pope not to print her jingoes, ironically donning her â€Å"friend†. This mirrors the ending to Mental Cases, where a sharp change of address sees the blame of the â€Å"extrication† shift to â€Å"us who dealt them war and madness†. Owen deliberately develops the poem to the startling climax, enveloping the blame around society as a whole, and not just certain poetesses. Dulce and Mental Cases match in descriptions, where the futile attempts to â€Å"pick† and â€Å"snatch† combine to provide the reader with an overwhelming sense of grief, at having sent these men off to war. Owen's ideas mean that we, the modern reader, feel this guilt at having sent innocent youths to their untimely deaths, when we had done nothing. However, contextually, the reader would have read this, and known that they had done wrong, becoming guilt-ridden at their mistake. This is similar to Futility, where Owen accuses the â€Å"fatuous sunbeams† of wasting human life, agreeing with the Doomed Youth title, but opposing its final lines. Futility describes how men are killing others, ending life, when we should not be ordering the termination of it – undoing God's work, when it is not our right to. Owen's feelings towards death, and the ending of life, are the fundamental issues in his poems. In Dulce, Owen is constantly comparing young with old, â€Å"bent double, like old beggars† and â€Å"knock-kneed, coughing like hags†. Dulce also details how the men â€Å"marched†¦drunk with fatigue†, explaining the exhausted state of the men. These three quotes are shocking, as these men are young, energetic men, but they're being reduced to quivering wrecks – suggesting men age quicker in the trenches, due to the horrors they see, and what they have to experience. This is a direct juxtaposition, where the young are dying before the old (A role reversal), but are seen as being ‘old' themselves. Owen's visual ideas on death are nothing short of morbid, describing: â€Å"at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs† In Dulce and Mental Cases, Owen adopts a macabre approach to extend the demons of these men. In Dulce, the â€Å"white eyes† of the â€Å"hanging face† suggest death is upon the man, and that he is looking at the men to choose his next victim. This idea is carried into Mental Cases, where there are men â€Å"whose minds the Dead have ravished†. Owen suggests, through a conviction of anxiety, that death is omnipresent, and that the worst fear is to become a â€Å"purgatorial shadow†. Owen writes to display one main conviction: that the false pretences of war are just that – false. By writing about such shocking and disturbing issues, Owen breaks the fabricated lies and makes his feelings known by adding ambiguous sentences to his poems, â€Å"marching asleep† – fatigue of war, or asleep to the glorious propaganda that recruited them? Owen's poems are full of truths, however controversial they seem, and he projects his convictions and feelings any way he can, regardless of consequences.

School Calendars And Its Benefits - 1525 Words

Alt. School Calendars and Its Benefits (Final) School is a place where students gain an education, but the traditional 180-day school calendar does not provide enough opportunities to the whole campus, however modified school calendars do in fact give those opportunities. Modified school calendars do deliver plentiful of opportunities that are available to everyone in the whole school community, thus this topic supports the main concept of the American Dream. Improved school calendars provide the best way to improve students’ education and this specific calendar will benefit them with their learning experience. Although alternative school calendars can be more costly than the average traditional 180-day school calendar, it provides a schedule that benefits all interested parties. Adapted school calendars decreases the summer learning loss, which improves the academic performance of students that will help them gain an education in school. 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